fingerprinting

DNA fingerprinting, also known as DNA typing, is a method of isolating and making images of sequences of DNA. The technique was developed in 1984 by the British geneticist Alec Jeffreys, after he noticed the existence of certain sequences of DNA (called minisatellites) that do not contribute to the function of a gene but are repeated within the gene and in other genes of a DNA sample. Jeffreys also determined that each organism has a unique pattern of these minisatellites, the only exception being multiple individuals from a single zygote (e.g., identical twins). The procedure for creating a DNA fingerprint consists of first obtaining a sample of cells containing DNA (e.g., from skin, blood, or hair), extracting the DNA, and purifying it. The DNA is then cut at specific points along the strand with substances called restriction enzymes. This produces fragments of varying lengths that are sorted by placing them on a gel and then subjecting the gel toan electric current (electrophoresis): the shorter the fragment the more quickly it will move toward the positive pole (anode). The sorted, double-stranded DNA fragments are then subjected to a blotting technique in which they are split into single strands and transferred to a nylon sheet. The fragments undergo autoradiography in which they are exposed to DNA probes—pieces of synthetic DNA that have been made radioactive and that bind to the minisatellites. A piece of X-ray film is then exposed to the fragments, and a dark mark is produced at any point where a radioactive probe has become attached. The resultant pattern of these marks can then be analyzed. An early use of DNA fingerprinting was in legal disputes,notably to help solve crimes and to determine paternity. The technique was challenged, however, overconcerns about sample contamination, faulty preparation procedures, and erroneous interpretation of the results. Efforts were made to improve reliability, and today the technique has been refined through the use of more specific and more sensitive probes and better blotting membranes. It also has been recognized that DNA fingerprinting, similar to other DNA analysis techniques, is limited by the quality of the sample obtained. DNA samples that are degraded or collected postmortem typicallyproduce less reliable results than do samples that are obtained from a living individual. If only a small amount of DNA is available for fingerprinting, PCR may be used to create thousands of copies of a DNA segment. Once an adequate amount of DNA has been produced, the exact sequence of nucleotide pairs in a segment of DNA can be determined using one of several biomolecular sequencing methods. Automated equipment has greatly increased the speed of DNA sequencing and has made available many practical applications, including pinpointing segments of genes that cause genetic diseases, mapping the human genome, engineering drought-resistant plants, and producing biological drugs from genetically altered bacteria.